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How to motivate residents’ behavioral intention to engage in household waste sorting? An integrated perspective based on the technology acceptance model and the theory of planned behavior

Waste sorting at the source represents the starting point of waste classification management and directly affects the effectiveness of subsequent classified collection, transportation, and treatment. As the primary actors in household waste sorting, residents play a critical role in the successful implementation of household waste classification management. Therefore, motivating residents’ behavioral intention to engage in household waste sorting is essential for improving the overall effectiveness of waste classification management. From an integrated perspective of the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB), this study developed a theoretical model to explain the formation mechanism of residents’ behavioral intention to engage in household waste sorting. Using a random sampling approach, a questionnaire survey was conducted among Chinese residents, yielding 635 valid responses. The results indicated that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of household waste sorting positively influence behavioral intention; attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control of household waste sorting significantly and positively predict behavioral intention; attitude of household waste sorting fully mediates the relationship between perceived usefulness and behavioral intention; moreover, both attitude and perceived behavioral control of household waste sorting partially mediate the relationship between perceived ease of use and behavioral intention. These findings provide valuable insights into strategies for motivating residents’ behavioral intention to participate in household waste sorting.

Psychometric properties of JPSS (Japanese parenting style scale) between mother and father in West Java, Indonesia

IntroductionAccurate measurement of parenting styles is essential for understanding disciplinary practices and comparing mother and father contributions in Indonesian cultural context. In this context, Japanese Parenting Style Scale (JPSS) assesses warmth, hostility, permissiveness, and harsh control, but psychometric evidence for Indonesian adaptation and measurement equivalence between mothers and fathers remains limited. Therefore, this research aimed to evaluate the initial psychometric properties of Indonesian version of JPSS and examine potential parental differences and measurement bias.MethodsParticipants were parents of preschool-aged children recruited from several cities in West Java, Indonesia. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the factor structure, while omega coefficients were adopted to assess internal consistency. Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) method was applied to detect differential item functioning (DIF) between mothers and fathers.ResultsThe four-factor structure was supported with necessary item refinements during the adaptation process. The indicators showed meaningful loadings on the respective constructs. Reliability estimates for all dimensions ranged from adequate to excellent. Comparative analyses indicated that mothers reported higher levels of warmth and hostility than fathers, while permissiveness and harsh control were relatively comparable. DIF analyses identified several items in the warmth dimension that functioned differently across parental status, showing potential measurement bias in raw score comparisons.DiscussionIndonesian version of JPSS showed promising psychometric properties for assessing parenting styles. However, mother–father comparisons were interpreted with caution due to item-level measurement nonequivalence. Future research could include more diverse samples, formally test measurement invariance, and incorporate qualitative methods to strengthen validity evidence.

An examination of the psychological mechanisms underlying the social existence and cognitive investment of college students in an online learning environment

Addressing the common challenges in online education, where the body is present but the mind is disengaged and deep learning is limited, it is crucial to examine how social interactions in virtual environments translate into intrinsic cognitive motivation. This study aimed to explore the mechanism linking social presence (SP) and cognitive engagement (CE) in online learning environments, with perceived interactivity (PI) introduced as a key variable for empirical testing. A total of 500 university students with online learning experience were recruited. Data were collected using the Community of Inquiry scale, the Online Learning Engagement scale, and the PI scale. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses were conducted using SPSS software. Results indicated that SP positively and robustly predicted CE (β = 0.582, p

Cross-dimensional cultural identity: a multi-dimensional empirical investigation of VTuber audience behavior through the lens of theory of planned behavior

IntroductionThis study employs the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to investigate the key factors influencing audience intention to watch Virtual YouTubers (VTubers). Guided by the decomposition logic of the decomposed theory of planned behavior, twelve antecedent variables were systematically integrated to decompose the three core TPB dimensions—attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control—within VTuber consumption contexts. Among these, three domain-specific variables—virtual identity identification, ACG culture identity, and cross-cultural influence—were introduced to capture the unique cultural and psychological characteristics of VTuber audiences.MethodsData were collected through an online survey platform, yielding 352 valid responses, and analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).ResultsThe findings reveal that audience attitude and subjective norms significantly and positively influence watching intention, while perceived behavioral control exhibits a relatively weaker effect. Content professionalism and sense of virtual community emerge as the primary antecedents affecting attitude and subjective norms, indicating that audiences prioritize content quality and community connections over virtual identity identification. Time availability proves to be the most crucial determinant of perceived behavioral control, reflecting the constraints of attention economy on VTuber viewing behavior.DiscussionThis study represents the first systematic application of DTPB in quantitative empirical research within the VTuber domain. Beyond contextual application, the findings reveal important boundary conditions: the unexpectedly weak effect of virtual identity identification challenges prevailing assumptions about avatar-based consumption, while the dominance of time constraints over economic barriers provides empirical evidence for attention economy dynamics in virtual entertainment contexts. The results offer both theoretical insights into TPB’s applicability boundaries in emerging virtual content domains and practical implications for platform operation and content design strategies.

Body image and mental health in university students: a scoping review of global evidence and research gaps

BackgroundUniversity students represent a high-risk population for psychological distress. While body dissatisfaction has emerged as a critical determinant of well-being, a comprehensive synthesis of contemporary evidence, mediating mechanisms, and systemic gaps is required to inform clinical practice.ObjectivesTo synthesize the scientific literature on body self-perception and mental health in university students, identifying core findings, mediating pathways, and existing research gaps.MethodsFollowing the PCC (Population, Concept, and Context) eligibility framework, a scoping review was conducted (March–April 2025), following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A systematic search was performed across Scopus, PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, SciELO, and Redalyc databases, including studies from 2014 to 2025 in English and Spanish. Eligibility criteria encompassed peer-reviewed quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies, as well as previous reviews; grey literature and unpublished theses were excluded. Two researchers performed independent data selection and extraction, followed by a narrative synthesis of the evidence. Full search strings are available as Supplementary material. In accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines for scoping reviews, formal quality appraisal of the included studies was not performed.ResultsA total of 18 studies were included, which were categorized into four thematic clusters. Body dissatisfaction was consistently associated with elevated levels of depression and anxiety across diverse cultural contexts. Self-esteem and fear of negative evaluation were identified as primary mediators. Furthermore, dissatisfaction was significantly linked to suicidal ideation, impaired sleep quality, and social dysfunction. Methodologically, most studies utilized cross-sectional, quantitative designs and remained anchored in the gender binary, largely excluding gender-diverse populations.ConclusionBody dissatisfaction is a potent risk factor for severe psychological distress in university students, driven by complex cognitive and digital mediators. There is an urgent need for longitudinal research and the inclusion of underrepresented populations. Findings highlight that Higher Education Institutions must transition toward proactive mental health frameworks, including integrated screening and inclusive, gender-affirming counseling policies.Systematic review registrationhttps://osf.io/6zefc.

Social power motives, gendered traits, and aggression in eSports: evidence from two survey waves

IntroductionThis study examined how social power motives and gendered traits relate to in-game aggression among Honor of Kings players.MethodsTwo survey waves were conducted with HoK players: Wave 1 included 295 participants, and Wave 2 included 194 returning participants. Participants completed measures of dominance, prestige, leadership, masculinity, femininity, and in-game aggression.ResultsDominance consistently related to higher in-game aggression. Prestige also showed positive associations with aggression. Leadership showed negative associations only when modeled with dominance, so this finding should be interpreted cautiously. Femininity consistently related to lower aggression, whereas masculinity did not independently relate to aggression.DiscussionAggression in this eSports context is most consistently linked to dominance-oriented status striving. Femininity may protect against aggressive in-game behavior.

When Cronbach's alpha does (not) indicate the reliability of domain-specific knowledge tests and why

The relationship between flow experience in sport and subjective well-being among university students: the chain mediation role of psychological resilience and basic psychological needs satisfaction

BackgroundSubjective well-being is a crucial indicator of university students’ mental health. Sports serve as a key channel for promoting the physical and mental health of university students. Flow experience in sport, as an easily accessible positive psychological experience, is a key approach to enhancing the subjective well-being of university students.MethodsGrounded in Self-Determination Theory, we built a chain mediation model. Our aim is to examine the chain mediating role of basic psychological needs satisfaction and psychological resilience. This mechanism connects flow experience in sports among university students with their subjective well-being. We collected 488 valid responses by randomly sampling from three universities. We used several scales for measurement. It includes the Flow Experience Scale, the Subjective Well-Being Scale, the Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction Scale, and the Psychological Resilience Scale. Then, we utilized the PROCESS macro (Model 6, Version 4.0) in SPSS 26.0 to analyze the data and test the chain mediation model.ResultsAmong university students, flow experience in sport shows a clear positive link to subjective well-being. Basic psychological needs satisfaction and psychological resilience each played a partial mediating role. And together they form a prominent chain mediation path. Respectively, 12.07%, 13.76%, and 7.77% of the total effect were attributed to these three indirect effects.ConclusionThis work clarifies the psychological mechanism linking flow experience in sport and subjective well‑being among university students. These research findings also provide practical references for universities. They can implement a comprehensive intervention program that integrates exercise with mental health.

The impact of mental fatigue on repeated sprint and change-of-direction performance in soccer

PurposeElucidating the impact of mental fatigue (MF) on physical performance in soccer is essential for optimizing athlete assessment, training, and competition strategies. However, the relationship between MF and both repeated sprint (RSA) and repeated change-of-direction performance (RCOD) remains unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of MF on RSA and RCOD performance in soccer players.MethodsIn a randomized, counterbalanced crossover design, 18 male amateur soccer players completed two experimental sessions, separated by a minimum 48 h washout period: (1) a 45-min Stroop task to induce mental fatigue (MF condition), and (2) watching a 45-min emotionally neutral video as control (CON condition). Following each treatment, participants performed a RSA test and a RCOD test. Measured variables included: Visual Analogue Scale for mental fatigue (VAS-MF), Brunel Mood Scale for fatigue (BRUMS-F), and vigor (BRUMS-V) (assessed pre- and post-treatment); average heart rate (HRave) during the treatment, RSA and ROCD test; Visual Analogue Scale for mental effort (VAS-ME) (assessed post-treatment); and blood lactate (BLA) along with ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) following each performance test.ResultsPre-treatment VAS-MF and BRUMS-F, HRave during the treatment did not differ significantly between conditions (p = 0.155, 0.429 and 0.262, respectively), post-treatment, the MF condition resulted in significantly higher VAS-MF, VAS-ME and BRUMS-F than control condition (p = 0.002,

When arousal meets cognitive load: affective arousal and germane processing in a Stroop-like task

This study investigates how affective arousal relates to distinct components of cognitive load during a cognitively demanding computer-based task. Affective arousal was measured pre- and post-performance using a brief pictorial instrument (POET-A), capturing momentary activation states in a language-independent format. Intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load were assessed following performance in a Stroop-like task in 120 participants (M = 23.72 years, SD = 5.72; 103 women, 15 men, 2 diverse), with germane cognitive load used as an indicator of germane processing. Results showed a consistent positive relation between affective arousal (pre- and post-task) and germane cognitive load, indicating an association with strategic, task-related cognitive processing. In contrast, affective arousal showed no (pre-performance) and only weak negative (post-performance) relations with intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, underscoring the functional specificity of these associations. Germane cognitive load was additionally related to Stroop-like task performance, particularly to process-sensitive performance indices (reaction time), whereas affective arousal itself was not directly associated with task performance. These findings show a systematic and selective association between affective arousal and germane processing, highlighting its potential role in cognitive resource allocation during task engagement within a Cognitive Load Theory framework.

Mental health in challenging situations: how experienced agency affects coping and mental distress

Mental health is becoming increasingly important in clinical settings and everyday situations alike. Here we address the role of experienced agency for mental health, i.e., the role of the experience of being in control and author of one's own actions and their consequences. The present study investigates how experience of agency is linked to mental health and coping in the face of personal and global challenges. Our data challenge a simple model of direct positive effects of agency experience for mental health for specific, challenging situations. Rather, they point toward a crucial impact of perceived responsibility that may influence when, in such situations, experiences of control affect mental health in a positive or negative manner. Interestingly, our data still confirm a generally positive association between trait assumptions of experienced agency and mental health. Stronger agency experience was further associated with more frequent use of control-related coping strategies. Exploratory analyses revealed a discrepancy between the actual use and the perceived effectiveness of coping strategies—a discrepancy that decreased with higher levels of experienced agency. Overall, the results highlight a close relationship between agency experience, mental health, and coping, while also pointing toward more complex mechanisms in specific challenging contexts. Interventions specifically aimed at strengthening agency experience may therefore represent a promising avenue for improving mental health especially when they employ measures to target the critical role of perceived responsibility.

Examining how emotional state, tolerance and closeness to others mediate the relationship between closeness to families and empathy in Chinese students

IntroductionIn the unique socio-cultural landscape of contemporary China, there is an ongoing scholarly debate regarding whether traditional demandingness or modern responsiveness—reflected as family closeness—is more conducive to fostering social–emotional skills. This study explores the relationship between closeness to families and empathy among students, specifically focusing on the mediating roles of emotional state, tolerance, and closeness to others.MethodsThe study employed a structural equation modeling (SEM)-based mediation analysis using data from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) 2019 Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (SSES). The participants included 3,578 10-year-old students from 76 schools in Suzhou, China.ResultsThe results indicate that closeness to families has significant effects on the empathy of students. Furthermore, this effect is completely mediated by three factors: emotional state, tolerance, and closeness to others.DiscussionThe findings underscore that in the modern Chinese context, high levels of responsiveness (family closeness) are essential for students to internalize social norms and develop empathic orientations. The study provides explanations for divergences in previous research through the mediation model and multi-group analysis, highlighting the significant impact of social culture and family education on empathy.

Editorial: Advances in sports science: latest findings and new scientific proposals, volume III

Development and validation of the Pulmonary Nodule Malignant Transformation Fear Scale (PN-MTFS) to identify patients at high risk of cancer-related fear: a multicenter study

ObjectivesTo develop and psychometrically validate the Pulmonary Nodule Malignancy Transformation Fear Scale (PN-MTFS), a disease-specific instrument for assessing fear related to the potential malignant transformation of pulmonary nodules, addressing a critical gap left by existing general anxiety or cancer-specific fear scales.MethodsA mixed-methods, two-phase study was conducted. In Phase I, qualitative interviews with 12 patients and expert consultation informed the development of the 18-item scale. In Phase II, a multicenter cross-sectional survey involving 579 patients was conducted for comprehensive psychometric validation, including Exploratory (EFA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis (MGCFA). Multiple linear regression and subgroup analyses were performed to identify factors associated with fear.ResultsEFA supported a two-factor structure: “Behavioral and Somatic Responses” and “Cognitive and Emotional Distress.” CFA confirmed the model’s adequacy with acceptable fit (CFI = 0.906, RMSEA = 0.068). The PN-MTFS demonstrated excellent internal consistency (total Cronbach’s alpha = 0.980), good validity, and high acceptability. Multiple regression identified several independent predictors of higher fear, including female sex, Han ethnicity, higher educational attainment, a positive family history of malignancy, and specific nodule characteristics (multiple, larger size, part-solid/ground-glass type). Subgroup analyses revealed distinct fear-related determinants across different nodule types.ConclusionThe PN-MTFS is a highly reliable, valid, and well-accepted instrument for the specific assessment of malignancy-related fear in patients with pulmonary nodules. Its robust two-factor structure and the identification of key influencing factors support its utility for early psychological screening and the development of targeted, personalized interventions.

Are cluster-based psychological profiles of body investment, self-perception and loneliness associated with eating-disorder severity, global psychopathology, and self-injury?

IntroductionPatients suffering from eating disorders (EDs) often report low self-esteem, body shame, and experiences of social or emotional loneliness. The present study aimed to identify distinct psychological profiles in female adolescents and young adults with EDs and to examine their associations with ED severity, global psychopathology, and self-injurious behaviors.MethodsThirty-eight female patients (age range 14–35; Mage  = 20.47, SDage = 5.59) attending an outpatient eating disorder service in southern Italy completed a sociodemographic questionnaire and self-report measures assessing self-esteem, body shame, social and emotional loneliness, affective body investment, psychopathology, and eating disorder severity. A semi-structured interview was administered to assess self-injurious behaviors.ResultsCluster analysis identified three profiles: (1) Vulnerable–Over-Invested, characterized by low self-esteem, high body shame, and high social and emotional loneliness, along with low body image and elevated body care and touch; (2) Vulnerable–Compensated, with higher self-esteem, lower body shame and loneliness, and high overall body investment; and (3) Vulnerable–Detached, characterized by low body touch, care, and protection, and high social and emotional loneliness. Significant differences among profiles emerged in ED severity (F(2, 35) = 4.24, p = .01, R2 = .27) and self-injurious behaviors (χ2(2) = 8.20, p = .017), with the Vulnerable–Over-Invested group showing greater clinical impairment. No significant differences emerged in global psychopathology (F(2, 35) = 1.02, p = .39, R2 = .08).DiscussionOverall, the findings suggest heterogeneous psychological profiles in this clinical sample of women with eating disorders. Given the cross-sectional design and small sample size, the results should be interpreted cautiously as descriptive associations requiring replication.

Psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the 10-item State Shame and Guilt Scale

BackgroundGuilt and shame are self-conscious emotions that affect behavior and mental health, with meanings that vary across cultures. In Arab society, shame is more related to social and moral values, while guilt is related to relational obligations. To date, no validated tool exists to assess both emotions in Arab populations, leading professionals to misrepresent how Arabs perceive guilt and shame. This limits clinical and research accuracy in understanding their relationship with psychological distress and other factors. Therefore, the present study aims to translate and validate the 10-Item State Shame and Guilt Scale into an Arabic version to provide an accurate tool for assessing guilt and shame among Arabs.Methods611 adults from Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq were recruited via an anonymous self-administered Google Forms survey. All questions were mandatory, resulting in no missing data. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted using RStudio (R version 4.5.2), with the “lavaan” and “SemTools” packages, applying the Weighted Least Squares Mean and Variance Adjusted (WLSMV) estimator appropriate for ordinal data to perform on the full sample.ResultThe CFA showed that the two-factor model of the shame and guilt scale demonstrated acceptable to good fit indices (X2 (34) = 175.62, p 

How teacher–student collaborative assessment relates to L2 writing self-efficacy: insights from Chinese EFL learners

ObjectiveTeacher–student collaborative assessment (TSCA) has attracted increasing attention as a participatory assessment approach in L2 writing, yet its relationship with writing self-efficacy remains underexplored, particularly in secondary-level EFL contexts. This study aimed to examine whether TSCA was associated with changes in students’ L2 writing self-efficacy and whether different patterns emerged across gender and internally defined pretest performance subgroups.MethodsA quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design was implemented with two intact Grade 10 classes in a Chinese senior high school. One class received TSCA-based writing instruction, whereas the other followed a traditional teacher-centered assessment approach. Writing self-efficacy was measured using an adapted questionnaire, and supplementary qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and t-tests, while interview data were examined through thematic analysis.ResultsThe experimental group showed stronger improvement patterns in overall writing self-efficacy than the control group, including improvement in both task self-efficacy and skill self-efficacy. Within the experimental group, no statistically significant gender difference was observed in the subgroup comparisons, whereas differences were observed across internally defined pretest performance subgroups, with the higher pretest-performing subgroup showing a stronger improvement pattern than the lower pretest-performing subgroup. The interview findings provided supplementary insight into how students perceived the TSCA process and how these perceptions differed across subgroups.ConclusionThe findings suggest that, within the present instructional context, students in the TSCA group showed more favorable patterns of self-efficacy development than those in the comparison group. This pattern was observed in overall writing self-efficacy and in both subdimensions, although subgroup findings were exploratory and should be interpreted cautiously. Given the quasi-experimental design, the single-school sample, and the limited subgroup analyses, the results should be understood as context-bound rather than as strong causal evidence.

Fostering social inclusion through adapted physical activity: an action research on the psychological experiences of students, teachers, and corporate volunteers

Inclusive education for students with developmental disabilities remains underserved within conventional corporate social responsibility (CSR) frameworks, representing a critical blind spot in cross-sector social investment. This study explores an innovative collaborative model that integrates corporate resources with expertise in adapted physical activity (APA) to address this gap. Using a two-cycle action research methodology over 11 months, the study analyzed a handball program for students with developmental disabilities involving 35 participants (21 corporate volunteers, 4 project support staff, and 10 special education teachers). Data collected through in-depth interviews and field notes were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis, resulting in 3 core themes: “Cultivating the Ground” (strategic planning), “Blooming the Flowers” (educational growth in students), and “Harvesting the Fruit” (organizational pride and ableism reduction). This study aimed to explore the psychological impacts and behavioral changes of various stakeholders involved. Specifically, it investigates how structured physical interactions foster physical self-efficacy in students with developmental disabilities, and how intergroup contact reduces prejudice and enhances organizational pride among corporate volunteers. Within the specific context examined, the findings suggest that APA-based CSR shows potential as a value-creation model that may promote creating shared value (CSV) by addressing educational blind spots and enhancing social inclusion; however, broader applicability requires further empirical investigation. This research provides a theoretical and practical foundation for expanding sustainable pathways to inclusive education through cross-sector partnerships.

The role of visibility as a predictor of children’s location choices in outdoor school grounds across age and gender

Children’s activities in school grounds are shaped by spatial design, affordances and social dynamics rather than preference alone. This study examines how children of different ages and gender use playground spaces, and how the design and visual depth of the environment shape these dynamics. Playground observations were conducted in two primary schools, one with integrated ball game fields and one with spatially separated fields. A novel method based on ten-second movement trajectories was developed to capture the fluid nature of playground life, from which heatmaps of use were produced. Playground use was analyzed using descriptive statistics and mixed-effects regression models incorporating Visual Mean Depth (VMD), a metric describing visual centrality. VMD significantly predicted children’s location choices, with associations varying by age and gender. Integrated ball game layouts in School A increased boys’ dominance over central and visible areas, pushing anyone not engaged in ball games toward the periphery. By contrast, School B’s separation of sports fields supported more equitable use of central areas, enabling younger children and girls to share visible and non-visible spaces. These findings highlight visibility as a key dimension shaping spatial use, showing that while age and gender matter, design choices, such as the placement of ball game fields, amplify or mitigate these patterns. In this sense, the visibility properties of playground environments shape the affordance landscape within which different forms of play become possible for different age and gender groups. The study underscores the need to consider not only equipment variety but also spatial configuration in playground design to support more equitable use of outdoor spaces of primary schools.

The developmental–diagnostic gap: cultural invisibility and delayed recognition of prenatal alcohol exposure

Foetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) originate during prenatal development, with recognition typically occurring only after behavioural differences become apparent. This delay reflects a temporal disconnect between early neurodevelopmental disruption and later clinical identification, highlighting a structural limitation in diagnostic approaches that rely primarily on observable outcomes. This paper introduces the concept of a developmental–diagnostic gap as a framework for understanding this disconnect. Drawing on existing literature, it integrates neurobiological, developmental, and sociocultural perspectives to examine how prenatal alcohol exposure affects brain development prior to behavioural recognition. Neurobiological mechanisms, including disruptions to neuronal migration and synaptic development, are considered alongside emerging molecular and epigenetic evidence. The placenta–brain axis is also explored as a potential pathway linking the maternal environment to foetal neurodevelopment. The framework highlights how reliance on behavioural presentation may contribute to delayed recognition, misinterpretation, and the accumulation of secondary developmental consequences. Cultural factors, including the normalisation of alcohol use and stigma surrounding maternal behaviour, further limit the visibility of early risk and contribute to under-identification. The developmental–diagnostic gap is presented as a conceptually grounded, empirically testable framework. It supports investigation of early biological indicators, including placental signalling and prenatal biomarkers, through longitudinal and interdisciplinary research designs. Addressing this gap has important implications for research, clinical practice, and public health. Earlier recognition of neurodevelopmental disruption may improve developmental outcomes by enabling timely, developmentally informed support and reducing the accumulation of secondary harm.